
##4001472 A review of five measures of cognitive style suggested three underlying dimensions despite differences in the terminology and theoretical bases of these instruments . Consequently , factor analytic methods were used on five measures completed by a sample of 143 students and faculty : the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator , Gregorc Style Delineator , Decision Style Indicator , Learning Style Inventory , and Lifescripts . Results of this analysis identified three underlying factors consistent with predictions , i.e. , a thinking/feeling dimension , an information-processing domain , and an attentional focus dimension . Implications for future psychometric research are discussed . <p> There has been longstanding interest within the behavioral sciences in developing typologies of behavior . Such classification systems have been developed in such areas as personality ( Jung , 1923 ) , learning styles ( e.g. , Gregorc , 1982a ; Kolb , 1976 ) , decision-making styles ( Rowe &; Mason , 1987 ) and social styles ( Christensen , 1980 ; Merrill &; Reid , 1981 ) . Moreover , these various schemes reflect the work of both theoretical and applied researchers in such fields @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , there appears to be little integration across these fields regarding consistent similarities among various classification systems . Examination of such regularities may indeed help elucidate underlying theoretical processes/and or mechanisms ; consequently the purpose of the present study was to examine the conceptual similarity among five different taxonomies of cognitive behavior . Using factor analytic methods , we demonstrate the consistent overlap among these systems and argue for the existence of three primary dimensions of cognitive operation . It is important to emphasize that this work is not meant to be an evaluation , per se , of the quality of the particular measures used to create these taxonomies , but rather , an examination of the implications of the confluence of the models . REVIEW OF FIVE MODELS <p> We begin by reviewing the five models and then present the logic of our conceptual synthesis . Our review requires the explication of the key dimensions of each system ; to aid the reader , we have presented in Tables 1 and 2 the proposed conceptual equivalences among the five . We begin with a discussion of Jung 's model @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 1923,1971 ) theory of personality types rests upon three orthogonal , bipolar dimensions ( a ) a perceiving dimension , which is concerned with the ways we initially process information ; ( b ) a judging dimension , which characterizes decision-making ; and ( c ) an attentional dimension , which defines preferences for internal versus external focus . One end of the perceiving scale , termed Sensation , is practical , realistic , and present-oriented . Sensing types prefer facts , details , and structure . The opposite perceiving approach , Intuition , reflects a greater concern for meanings and implications rather than raw facts , and with patterns , rather than details . Intuitive types are imaginative and able to quickly recognize relationships in data . <p> Judging is accomplished either by Thinking , the term Jung used to denote an objective , logic-oriented mode of evaluation , or by Feeling , which is more personal and value-oriented . Individuals with a strong Thinking orientation tend to value control while those who lean toward Feeling generally prefer collaboration . <p> Jung also defined two opposing attentional preferences ; @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , which gives more attention to the internal mental process . <p> Jung 's framework is the theoretical foundation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ( MBTI ) ( Myers &; McCaulley , 1985 ) , an instrument widely used in counseling , educational , and industrial environments . Myers and Briggs introduced an additional dimension , called Judging-Perceiving , which describes an individual 's preference for organizing or controlling one 's external environment ( judging ) or for understanding these events ( perceiving ) . ( This was not one of Jung 's original dimensions ; moreover , we do not explicitly deal with this dimension in our study . ) <p> Several researchers , e.g. , Hellriegel and Slocum ( 1975 ) , McCaulley ( 1987 ) , have defined a 2 x 2 problem solving/cognitive style matrix by crossing Jung 's perceiving and judging dimensions , i.e. , Sensation/Thinking , Sensation/Feeling , Intuition/Thinking , and Intuition/Feeling . The utility of this taxonomy has been demonstrated in organizational studies of preferred organizational climate ( Mitroff &; Kilman. 1975 ) and executive decision-making ( McKenney &; Keen , 1974 ) . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ style is the work of Gregorc ( 1982a , 1982b ) whose four learning style categories are based upon the crossing of sequential or random processing ( dimension 1 ) with concrete or abstract data ( dimension 2 ) . In his theory , " concrete " refers to the immediate experience of new information , no matter how it is dealt with , while " abstract " refers to the mental representation of the experience . Gregorc 's four styles are summarized by Butler ( 1988 ) as follows : PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> The preceding description of the Concrete Sequential can be applied to Jung 's Sensation type while the adjectives describing the Abstract Sequential are appropriate for the Thinking type . The Abstract Random description is quite suitable for Feeling types while Intuitives can easily be associated with the Concrete Random learning style . While no studies have directly compared MBTI types with those measured by the Gregorc Style Delineator ( 1982b ) , they have been linked in separate studies involving a third measure , the Kirton Adaptation/Innovation Inventory . <p> Kirton ( 1976 ) proposed two problem-solving @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ work within the existing situation to solve a problem and tend to be practical , methodical , and conforming . Innovators , on the other hand , question all aspects of a problem , approach it from new angles and challenge rules . <p> Kirton 's descriptions generally coincide with Myers ' ( 1987 , p. 5 ) description of Sensing types who " ... accept and work with what is ' given ' in the here-and-now , and thus become realistic and practical " and Intuitives who " ... grow expert at seeing new possibilities and new ways of doing things . " Indeed , Carne and Kirton ( 1982 ) found significant correlations between Intuitives and Innovators and between Sensates and Adaptors . Joniak and Isaksen ( 1988 ) compared the Kirton and Gregorc instruments and found that Adaptors corresponded to Concrete Sequentials and Innovators to Concrete Randoms . The results of these two studies support the Jung/Gregorc parallel summarized in Table 1 . <p> Additional evidence of the parallelism between the Gregorc and MBTI systems can be seen in the response profiles of men and women taking the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scored significantly higher on the Abstract Sequential channel while females scored higher on the Abstract Random channel . Both genders were predominantly Concrete Sequential . Similarly , Myers and McCaulley ( 1985 ) report that on the MBTI males are most often classified as Thinking types ( parallel to Gregorc 's Abstract Sequential ) while most females are typed as Feeling ( Abstract Random ) , and there are many more Sensates ( corresponding to Concrete Sequential ) in the general population than there are Intuitives ( Concrete Random ) . Thus data from the Kirton Inventory , as well as gender differences in response patterns to the two measures , suggest the similarity between MBTI and Gregorc " types . " Decision Style Inventory <p> Rowe 's Decision Style Inventory ( DSI ) ( Rowe &; Mason , 1987 ) has its conceptual foundation in his earlier work with Driver ( Driver &; Rowe , 1979 ) on the use of information in decision making and idea generation . His model is based upon the dimensions of cognitive complexity and environmental complexity . The first term reflects an individual 's @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ concern for people- ( vs. task- ) oriented work environment . The four styles derived from this model are : Directive , Analytic , Conceptual , and Behavioral . <p> The Directive Style reflects a practical , present-oriented approach . Directives are autocratic , action-oriented , and prefer structure . Analytics are logical , task-oriented , abstract thinkers . The Conceptual style is associated with creativity , insight , and intuition . Behaviorals are people-oriented , supportive , and receptive . Kolb 's Learning Style Inventory <p> Kolb 's ( 1984 ) learning cycle model represents another conceptual approach to classifying cognitive processing . Based largely on Piaget , Kolb uses the terms abstract and concrete differently than does Gregorc , relating them to Jung 's Thinking and Feeling dimensions . Kolb states that " An orientation toward abstract conceptualization focuses on using logic , ideas , and concepts . It emphasizes thinking as opposed to feeling " while " An orientation toward concrete experience focuses on being involved in experiences and dealing with human situations in a personal way . It emphasizes feeling as opposed to thinking " ( pp. @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ learning theory is that of active experimentation versus reflective observation . In one of the several perspectives that Kolb offers on his theory of learning , he describes his two dimensions respectively as one of grasping information and one of transforming it . Grasping is accomplished by either apprehension ( concrete experience ) or comprehension ( abstract conceptualization ) . The two forms of transformation are extension ( " active external manipulation , " p. 41 ) and intention ( " internal reflection , " p. 41 ) . Kolb specifically relates intention to introversion and extension to extraversion . <p> Kolb 's four styles are defined by the intersection of his two dimensions . Convergers favor abstract conceptualization and active experimentation while Divergers emphasize reflective observation and concrete experience . Accommodators value active experimentation and concrete experience , while Assimilators prefer abstract conceptualization and reflective observation . <p> Comparing his Learning Style Inventory ( LSI ) and the MBTI , Kolb ( 1976 ) noted " The strongest and most consistent relationships appear to be between concrete/abstract LSI and feeling/thinking MBTI and between active/reflective LSI and extrovert/introvert MBTI " ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ learning styles relate to the extraverted and introverted aspects of the Thinking/Feeling scale . Lifescripts <p> The last measure considered is Christensen 's ( 1980 ) Lifescripts . Designed for use in management consulting , the scale defines four styles ( Analyzer , Controller , Supporter , and Promoter ) that Christensen relates to social interaction rather than cognitive functions . Nevertheless , the authors believe that such styles , as described as follows by Christensen , do , in fact , reflect cognitive variations in the way people use information whether they are in social situations or performing more clearly cognitive tasks . Moreover , we see definite parallels between this taxonomy and the Thinking/Feeling and **25;441;TOOLONG dimensions of the MBTI . <p> According to Christensen , " Controllers want results . They are very task oriented and will make sure the job gets done " ( p. 3 ) . They " ... like to direct and coordinate the work of others " ( p. 3 ) . Myers and Myers ( 1980 , p. 85 ) tell us that " Extraverted Thinkers use their thinking to run as @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " ; and " ... they enjoy deciding what ought to be done and giving appropriate orders to ensure that it will be done . " <p> Introverted Thinking types , like Analyzers , are logical and reserved . They " use their thinking to analyze the world , not run it " ( p. 89 ) . Extraverted Feeling types are friendly , tactful , sympathetic , and like dealing with people , while Promoters are described as gregarious , outgoing , and socially skillful . Introverted Feeling types are idealistic , loyal , and " value , above all , harmony " ( p. 97 ) . Supporters are also characterized as idealistic and loyal and " ... will try to keep conflict low in order to maintain harmony " ( Christensen , 1980 , p. 2 ) . <p> It should be noted that Lifescripts represents only one of a considerable number of style measures developed for consulting purposes ; cf. Life Orientations Survey ( Atkins , 1981 ) , The Self Profile ( DeVille , 1984 ) , and Social Style Profile ( Merrill &; Reid , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ can be found in Bokoros ( 1989 ) . <p> We have considered five conceptual models of style relevant to cognition and noted their similarities ( see Tables 1 and 2 ) . We consider it significant that these pronounced similarities exist despite their differences in conceptual development , domains of application , specific item content and the response format of the measures . Jung based his typology upon observations made in the course of his clinical practice ; Gregorc and Kolb studied learning in the academic environment ; while Rowe and Christensen drew from work done in the industrial environment . <p> The similarity that exists among the systems suggests that the five measures may all be tapping into a single , consistent conceptual framework . Indeed , we hypothesize that a factor analysis of these five measures ( see also Table 3 ) will lead to the emergence of three factors : Factor 1 -- An executive cognitive function charged with controlling cognitive operations and arriving at decisions ; Factor 2 -- A receiving function ordering and encoding sensory input ; and Factor 3 -- An activating function determining @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ in a close relationship with Factor 1 . <p> Finally , we believe that factors 1 and 2 operate along bipolar dimensions analogous to serial and parallel processing . METHOD <p> The instruments used in this study were the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ( MBTI ) , the Learning Style Inventory ( LSI ) , the Gregorc Style Delineator ( GSD ) , the Decision Style Inventory ( DSI ) , and Lifescripts ( LFS ) . <p> The MBTI and LSI are relatively well-known instruments with documented psychometric integrity ( see Carlson , 1985 ; Carlyn , 1977 ; Myers and McCaulley , 1985 ; Thompson and Borello , 1986 , MBTI ; Freedman and Stumpf , 1978 ; Geller , 1978 ; Kolb , 1976 , 1981,1984 , LSI . ) Consequently , we will examine the latter three measures . <p> The GSD ( Gregorc , 1982a , 1982b ) presents the respondent with 10 sets of 4 words . In each set , the individual is asked to rank order the words in terms of how well they describe the respondent . Gregorc ( 1982b ) describes test-retest @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ construct validity ( positive correlations between GSD style types and endorsement of 40 characteristics theoretically consistent with the types ) ; nevertheless , the psychometric soundness of the GSD does not appear to be well-documented . <p> The Decision Style Inventory ( Rowe &; Mason , 1987 ) involves choosing from a set of four phrases the best ending to a sentence . Twenty sentences and word phrases are presented . Rowe ( Rowe &; Mason , 1987 ) reports significant split-half validity for his measure and reliable correlations between the DSI and other well-known measures- the MBTI , the LSI , and the Embedded Figures Test ( Witkin , Oltman , Raskin &; Karp , 1971 ) -but presents no actual data in his book . Finally , Christensen 's ( 1980 ) Lifescripts consists of 18 sentence completion items with four choices each to be ranked in order of how descriptive they are of the subject . The first six sentences are questions about a hypothetical autobiography ; the next six refer to a movie based on the book ; and the final six relate to critical responses ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is no reported data on either the validity or reliability of the measure . <p> Although the last three measures do not have well-established reliability and validity , this does not present a particular difficulty in terms of the focus of our study , which is on the convergence of these measures . Indeed , the extent to which the measures are not psychometrically sound should just add random " noise " to the analysis and work against any convergence of factors . <p> The five measures were administered to 180 students and faculty members at Central Connecticut State University . One hundred and sixty-two of the subjects correctly completed all five measures . The data were then screened for outliers , skewness , and multivariate normality following procedures described by Tabatchnik and Fidell ( 1989 ) . The final sample of 143 individuals had a mean age of 32 years with a range of 17 to 72 . A variety of majors was reported , but most of the participants were from psychology , education , and business disciplines . <p> To prepare the data for factor analysis , all @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . This transformation did not distort the meaning of the scales but allowed for more direct interpretation of the factor analysis in terms of the hypothesized factor alignment . For the MBTI , the dimensions were E/I S/N , T/F , J/P ( see Myers &; McCaulley , 1985 ) . On the LSI , we labeled CE - AC as LSI1 and AE - RO as LS12 . The dimensions of the GSD were defined as GSD1 = Abstract Random Abstract Sequential , and GSD2 = Concrete Random - Concrete Sequential , while for the DSI , dimensions were computed as DSI1 = Behavioral - Analytic , and DSI2 = Conceptual - Directive . <p> Computing continuous dimensions for Lifescripts was more complex since the instrument asked for responses under both normal and " adverse " conditions ( i.e. , negative reviews of the book and movie about their life ) . Since this division was not needed for our study , responses for a given item were combined into a single score for each type . The SP ( Supporter ) and PM ( Promoter ) scores were then @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ was obtained by combining AN ( Analyzer ) with CT ( Controller ) . Subtracting Task from People produced the scale , LFS1 , that we believe is associated with the MBTI 's T/F . The extraversion score ( CT + PM ) was subtracted from the introversion score ( AN + SP ) to obtain LFS2 . <p> The continuous scores were subjected to a principal factor analysis using varimax rotation ( SAS , 1985 ) . The specific factor alignment predicted is shown in Table 3 . RESULTS <p> A complete intercorrelation matrix of all variables is available from the authors . The pattern of correlations was generally consistent with predictions with the exception of the LSl 's AE and RO . Neither showed any meaningful association with Introversion or Extraversion . AE did show a small correlation with Sensation , and RO with Feeling . We also found that the GSD 's Sequential scores were significantly correlated with Introversion and the Random scores with Extraversion . <p> Kaiser 's Measure of Sampling Adequacy ( Kaiser , 1970 ) was 0.78 , exceeding the 0.6 threshold recommended by Tabatchnik @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Three factors , which account for 100% of the common variance , were retained . The eigenvalues were : 3.163 , 1.670 , and 0.854 , respectively . The inclusion of the third factor with an eigenvalue less than one was based on inspection of the scree plot ( see Tabachnick &; Fidell , 1989 , p. 635 ) . The factor loadings after varimax rotation are shown in Table 4 . <p> Loadings exceeding 0.55 , Comrey 's ( 1973 ) criteria for " good " factors , are enclosed in parentheses . As can be seen , the alignment of the dimensions coincides very well with our theoretical predictions . DISCUSSION <p> The findings support our hypothesis in nearly every respect . Factor1 represents a decision-making function : convergent and objective at one pole ; divergent and subjective at the other . It appears to play a supervisory role in cognitive functioning . Factor2 represents a basic data-processing orientation : at one extreme immediacy , accuracy , and applicability ; at the other patterns and possibilities . Factor3 consists of the MBTI **25;468;TOOLONG scale and a similar scale @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ more to external stimuli or to one 's own thoughts and ideas . While Kolb 's theory approaches this factor from a purely cognitive standpoint ( as opposed to Christensen 's emphasis on the social environment ) his active/reflective dimension failed to load on this factor , or any other . This may reflect more on the instrument per se than on Kolb 's learning theory . In our opinion one end of his scale relates to pragmatism , rather than to activity , and the other end to a preference for passive learning , which is not necessarily reflective . <p> All of the instruments , including the LSI , load successfully on Factor1 , the decisionmaking dimension . Lifescripts combines this dimension with Factor3 ( Introversion/ Extraversion ) . The " social " styles defined by this instrument apparently reflect the internal and external application of the executive cognitive function . <p> The pattern of results is also consistent with certain neurophysiological data regarding brain functions . Luria ( 1966,1970,1973 ) , based on research into functional deficiencies resulting from localized brain damage , postulated three primary structures he @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ p. 66 ) . The first block ( brain stem , reticular formation , and hippocampus ) , relates principally to arousal ( see also Eysenck , 1967 ) ; the second block ( temporal , parietal , and occipital lobes ) deals with encoding of information ; while the third block ( frontal lobes ) is concerned with planning and decision-making . <p> The three blocks appear to have direct functional correspondence to the MBTI , i.e. , block one with **25;495;TOOLONG , block two with sensation/ intuition and block three with thinking/feeling . The remaining four models show parallels with two of the three blocks . Both Gregorc and Rowe describe functions related to encoding ( block two ) and decision-making ( block three ) while Kolb 's and Christensen 's measures both consider functions akin to attentional focus ( block one ) and decision making ( block three ) . <p> What are the implications of our results ? We believe that the convergence of the five instruments , containing in total 28 separate cognitive/behavioral indices , into three bipolar dimensions argues for the fundamentality of these dimensions @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the individual measures in their appropriate applications , a focus on the underlying cognitive processes may result in the development of new measures ( or the simplification of existing ones ! ) that have greatly expanded utility and applicability . Moreover , such research may inform neurophysiological work examining the chemical and biological bases of cognitive behavior . We believe that future psychometric research should examine the commonalities among psychological measures and their implications for underlying psychological processes rather than adding to the continued proliferation of instruments of limited applicability . TABLE 1 Related cognitive factors proposed by Jung , Gregorc and Rowe PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> 1 1923 , 1971 2 1982a , b 3 1987 TABLE 2 Related social/cognitive factors proposed by Jung , Kolb and Christensen PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> 1 1923 , 1971 2 1984 3 1980 TABLE 3 Predicted factor alignment PREFORMATTED TABLE <p> 1 J/P is included in factor 2 owing to its high correlation with S/N , no other prediction is made with regard to it TABLE 4 Factor Loadings after Varimax Rotation Scale Factor1 Factor2 Factor3 LFS1 ( 0.794 ) 0.135 0.026 DSI1 ( 0.754 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ( 0.655 ) 0.206 -0.328 LSI1 ( 0.635 ) -0.039 -0.193 LSI2 -0.249 -0.046 -0.137 S/N -0.006 ( 0.723 ) -0.149 GSD2 0.174 ( 0.653 ) -0.336 DSI2 -0.023 ( 0.586 ) 0.137 F/P 0.229 ( 0.555 ) -0.126 E/I -0.184 -0.029 ( 0.655 ) LFS2 0.132 -0.218 ( 0.646 ) <p> Note : High loadings enclosed in parentheses <p> 
##4001474 No gender differences appeared in personality ratings of aggression/assertiveness when separate rating scales were used to rate extensive interview and test material on elderly women and men . Men were rated significantly lower in aggression on a scale created to rate women than on a scale created to rate men , and men tended to be rated as less aggressive than women on the female scale . For women , aggression was apparent in their accounts of current activities , while in men aggression was more often apparent in their renditions of past-life activities . Gender differences were most apparent in verbal aggression in interpersonal interactions . Findings are consistent with the possibility of age-related decline in aggression in men . <p> This study explored gender differences in old age in personality ratings of aggression/assertiveness along with patterns of apparent change in aggression from middle to old age . A perennial issue in adult development and aging is mean-level personality change from middle to old age , in which men become less , and women more , aggressive ( Turner , 1982 ) . Longitudinal research using objective @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ trait aggression ( Costa &; McCrae , 1980 ) , while research on self-concepts ( Bengtson , Reedy , &; Gordon , 1985 ) indicates more , and research using projective tests ( Gutmann , 1977 ) suggests still more , differential personality change in aggression for women and men . <p> In the present study , ratings of aggression were made from lengthy structured interviews and test materials . In this study , aggression is defined as action which is carried out in a forceful way to achieve ends . High aggression refers to a high level of assertiveness and goal-directedness to push toward a goal despite obstacles . A high level of hostility or overt anger does not necessarily indicate high assertiveness . At the low end of the scale , the individual is not assertive ; hostility may be suppressed or covertly expressed , but the individual is withdrawn and nonassertive ( Turner , 1969 , p. 123 ) . <p> When such data were initially analyzed , Turner ( 1969 ) created and used separate five-point scales for male and female respondents to rate aggression , for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ differed somewhat from those in women ; but , more important , examination of the interview and test protocols gave Turner the impression that men in this sample were , in general , less aggressive than women ( Turner , 1969 , p. 125 ) . Separate scales were created to control for these apparent gender differences , and , using the two separate scales , men and women did not differ in aggression . <p> But were the women in that sample indeed more aggressive than men ? To answer this question , men and women must be rated on the same scale . In the present , secondary analysis , aggression in male respondents was again rated , using the scale devised for rating women . Two comparisons were made . First , ratings of male respondents on the scale created in 1968 to rate men were compared to ratings of male respondents on the scale created in 1968 to rate women ; second , ratings of male respondents on the latter scale were compared to those of female respondents on the same scale . It was hypothesized that @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scale than on the male scale , and that men would be rated as less aggressive than women when both genders were rated on the female scale . METHOD Sample <p> The sample consisted of 85 elderly Jewish persons ( 60 women and 25 men ) who were interviewed while on the waiting list for admission to one of three homes for the aged . The age range was 63-91 years old ( M = 78 years ) ; all respondents were born before the turn of the twentieth century . All respondents were ambulatory , free of major incapacitating illnesses , and showed no gross signs of altered brain function as defined by poor performance on several cognitive measures ( Turner , Tobin , &; Lieberman , 1972 ) . There were no gender differences in cognitive status ( Turner , 1969 ) or physical and functional capacity ( Tobin , 1990 ) . Data <p> A basic battery of instruments and focused interviews was administered to all respondents . This battery consisted of 18 structured instruments and 9 focused interview sections , administered in 4 to 6 sessions totalling @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ made six types of judgment on each respondent after completing the interview . <p> Turner ( 1969 ) developed a definition for the construct " aggression " and devised five-point scales to rate aggression as a personality trait in men and women separately ; scales were constructed to distribute the sample evenly among the five points . Scale points shown below were devised to rate women , and in the present analysis were used to rate both genders . <p> Scale point definitions for personality ratings of aggression used to rate women , and in 1990 , men also : Very Low Aggression . Respondent denies assertiveness in almost every instance , seeming instead to withdraw . Respondent seems unable to assert self , even in situations in which interpersonal conflict would not occur . Respondent may appear " helpless " or apathetic . Personal characteristics include : Respondent is a very quiet , compliant , unobtrusive person who places or has always placed others ' needs before own needs ; respondent represses own needs to propitiate others , is subservient ; Respondent is verbal and friendly to the interviewer , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ; is timid and fears own decisions , so defers to those of relatives , or " gives in " so as to avoid confrontations and denies anger or expresses helplessness ; and Respondent despairs of influencing others and has withdrawn , feels helpless . Respondent may seem actually afraid of the interviewer . Low Aggression . Respondent is generally a very mild person , but on occasion goes after things despite being most uncomfortable in situations involving interpersonal conflict . Or respondent seems never to go after things directly , but instead manipulates others in a passive fashion to supply needs . Respondent may use martyrdom and whining as weapons , but at the same time conveys impotence in influencing others and an inability to follow through in an assertive manner . Rather than mildness , respondent may convey strong anxiety with consequent withdrawing tendencies and a strong wish to avoid trouble that is then acted on . Moderate Aggression . Respondent is not particularly assertive , but focuses considerable hostility outward , so may angrily tell others off . Respondent has much potential for interpersonal conflict that is not @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ be very domineering in one or two relationships within the family circle , but is markedly fearful of ( and thus avoidant of , or deferent to ) nonfamily figures . Or , respondent 's aggressivity has a metered quality and is appropriately expressed ( but is not sufficiently intrusive/dominant to be rated a 4 ) . High Aggression . Respondent is very goal-directed in certain areas of life ; may be tough and argumentative , but is occasionally unsure of self and withdraws . Respondent is somewhat domineering ; or tends to assume leadership roles and actively assumes responsibility in social situations , but is not as intrusive/dominant as a 5 . Or , a mild , unobtrusive front covers an ability to assume control of people and social situations , so that respondent is strongly directive and powerful without seeming to be so . Very High Aggression . Respondent runs everything , takes over ; is a leader . Respondent may pop off unrestrainedly at every opportunity ; has a never-say-die attitude and is a formidable opponent . May manipulate people but in an active , commandeering , openly @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ is an iron-willed dictator who compels deference . Respondent is instantly prepared to fight for own rights in almost any situation . Highly intrusive . <p> For the purpose of comparison , scale point definitions for personality ratings of aggression used to rate men in 1968 are shown below . The scale point definitions for personality ratings of aggression used to rate men in 1968 were : Very Low Ageression . Respondent may be extroverted or very quiet , but in either case he expresses impotence and helplessness in interpersonal conflicts ; e.g. , if his child says something mean to him , he cries , or feels he must " take it . " The interviewer may remark that he is especially mild-mannered , passive , and subservient . He is " broken . " He has a strong self-image of noncompetitiveness and unobtrusiveness ; he views himself as a man who " never argues . " Low Aggression . Respondent seems to do his very best to avoid conflict , but irritation slips through . He may be apathetic and humble but manipulates others . In his job , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ may have an " underdog " air . Moderate Aggression . Respondent is easily irritated , agitated , and negativistic , but he deals with these feelings by isolating himself . He is a quiet man , but he has a stubborn streak . At present , he seems to be a quiet , even a passive man , but in earlier life he seemed to display decided masculine-assertive characteristics ; e.g. , he reveled in his superordinate position as foreman in which he directed the work of many other men ; or he once loved to participate in competitive sports . In general , he has a potential for conflict although he prefers to avoid it . High Aggression . Respondent was quite competitive in his business and took on many organizational activities and responsibilities . Often he has been a " doer " and still tries to control others . He is occasionally quite irascible , or he may be an egotist who persistently seeks to be the center of attention . Although he may express some timidity about crossing others , he will stand up for his rights @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ verbally aggressive or is quarrelsome and maintains a masculine-aggressive pose ; he is forceful and may even be physically aggressive , or he was when younger . He was , and still tries to be , dominant over others . Or , he is an egotist who takes on organizational responsibilities as well as relentlessly seeking a limelight . RESULTS <p> The mean score for women on the rating scale for aggression created in 1968 for rating women , M = 2.98 , SD = 1.44 , was almost identical to the mean score for men on the rating scale created in 1968 for rating aggression in men , M = 3.0O , SD = 1.26 . A second rater , unaware of the specific hypotheses of this study , rated 13 female and 18 male protocols on the female and male scales , respectively ; interjudge reliability ( product-moment correlations ) for female cases was .86 and for male cases , .93 . <p> Next , all 25 male cases were rated on the aggression scale created for rating women , M = 2.44 , SD = 1.00 . Interjudge @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ scale was .95 . Thirteen of the 25 men ( 52% ) were rated as less aggressive on this scale than they were rated on the scale for men . No men were rated as more aggressive on the female scale than on the male scale . It should be noted that 4 of the 25 men had received the lowest possible rating on aggression on the male scale , and therefore could be rated no lower on the female scale . Hence , of the 21 men who might have been rated lower on the female than on the male scale , 62% ( n = 13 ) were so rated . Men were rated as significantly less aggressive on the female scale than they were on the male scale , t(24) = 4.80 , p <.001 . <p> Finally , ratings of men and women were compared on the scale created for rating women . On the aggression scale devised for rating women , men ( M = 2.44 ) tended to be rated as less aggressive than were women , M = 2.98 , t(83) = 1.71 , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ this study provide partial support for the hypothesis that men ( in this sample of Jewish elderly ) were less aggressive than women . Although half of the men were rated as less aggressive on the scale created for rating women than they were on the scale devised for rating men , and although this difference is significant , mean ratings for the two genders on the female scale failed to reach significance at the .05 level . <p> Gender differences were especially apparent above the midpoint of the scale . Twenty percent of the women , but none of the men , received the highest rating ( 5 ) on the female scale . Analysis indicated that , for women , the presence or absence of forceful goal-directed action was generally apparent in their accounts of current activities . For men , in contrast , the presence of forceful action was more often rated on the basis of their renditions of past-life , especially occupational activities . Occupational life and , for some , organizational activities and competitive sports , provided the context for male assertiveness . Organizational activities and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ context for highly assertive women , but gender differences were particularly apparent in the expression of verbal assertiveness in interpersonal situations . Among men , verbal aggression often appeared as irritability ; assertive women , in contrast , were more zestfully direct in verbal aggression and more forceful in their attempts to achieve their goals in interpersonal contexts . These gender differences in the expression of aggression were not accounted for by differences in physical status ; the women and men in this sample were comparable in health status ( Tobin , 1990 ) . The gender differences in manifestations of aggression in this study are similar to the gender differences in expression of ego mastery style found in projective test responses of elderly . Gutmann ( 1964 ) reported that women tended to view conflicts as interpersonal , or deployed aggression directly , while men were more likely to struggle against an impersonal environment , or were unable to act instrumentally to reach their goals . <p> These data are cross-sectional , and it can not unambiguously be concluded that the men in this sample are less aggressive than they @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ however , with such an interpretation . The mechanism for such a change , if it occurs , remains unclear in these data . Gutmann 's socioevolutionary model ( 1977,1987 ) is the most comprehensive approach to gender differentiation across the life span in personality traits such as aggression ( Huyck , 1990 ) . Gutmann has proposed that aggression in younger men has evolved in response to the demands of parenting ; when the offspring are no longer vulnerable and in need of support , men are free to become less aggressive . <p> Another suggestion is that occupational life provides a normative context for male aggression across many cohorts in our society , such that assertiveness dwindles when the occupational context is unavailable to men in old age . Intimate interactions , in contrast , form the normative context for female aggression , at least among the elderly cohorts thus far studied . Aggression , in other words , may be somewhat situation-specific for each gender . In this sample , however , assertive old women were more likely to be directly aggressive in public " impersonal " contexts @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ men were in " private " interpersonal interactions . <p> The findings of this study are consistent , then , with the possibility of age-related decline in aggression in men . It also appears that the old men studied are indeed somewhat less aggressive than are the old women , at least when aggression , defined as forceful goal-directed action , is rated from extensive interview and test materials . ( In contrast , studies using objective personality tests such as the Guildford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey find large gender differences in the expected direction on masculine-associated scales Costa , McCrae , &; Arenberg , 1983 ) . <p> Because aggression in women in this study was readily rated on the basis of current activities , there is no way of estimating stability or change in level of aggression among women . Whether women increase in aggression from middle to old age remains an open question in these data . <p> 
##4001476 A three-alternative forced choice forward masking procedure was embedded in an arcade-style rocketship video game . Human subjects were categorized into five groups adults and 5- , 6- , 7- , and 8-year-old children . The masker was a 500-msec noise that simulated rocket engines and the 20-msec , 500-Hz sinusoidal signal was a chirp from a gremlin . The gremlin hid , at random , in one of the three rockets . Subjects responded and interacted with the game by touching the rocket hiding the gremlin . Results revealed that masked thresholds decreased for all groups as a function of the interstimulus interval . The reliability of the psychophysical approach was confirmed and a developmental trend lends support to the hypothesis that auditory processing improves as a function of age . Children 's auditory filters were suggested to be functionally larger than those of adults . <p> A child 's perception of the world , like everyone 's , is a function of experience and innate sensory abilities . In this respect important and fundamental questions exist concerning a child 's sensory competence . It is well @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ young child can lead to permanent perceptual impairment if the defect is not recognized and corrected . As a result , the need to evaluate and understand a child 's visual capability is important . Likewise , the auditory modality is a vital and significant window to the world . Indeed , normal hearing mechanisms are clearly functional well before birth and are vital to normal speech development ( e.g. , Bredberg , 1968 ; DeCasper and Fifer , 1980 ; Elliott et al. , 1979 ; Morrongiello , Kulig , &; Clifton , 1984 ) . <p> The present paper examines an essential auditory parameter , temporal processing , using young children . The choice of time as the variable of interest , rather than frequency or intensity , was based on intuition as well as empirical data . Investigators of infant and child hearing have labored diligently to provide important contributions to the development of frequency and intensity processing ( e.g. , Allen , Wightman , Kistler , &; Dolan , 1989 ; Aslin , 1989 ; Davis &; McCroskey , 1980 ; Irwin , Ball , Kay , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ , &; Schade , 1986 ; Jensen , 1987 ; Morrongiello &; Trehub , 1987 ; Morrongiello , Kulig , &; Clifton , 1984 ; Nossa &; Wilson , -1984 ; Olsho , 1985 ; Soderquist &; Hoenigman , 1973 ; Soderquist &; Moore , 1970 ; Thorpe , Trehub , Morrongiello , &; Bull , 1988 ) . There is , however , no doubt that temporal patterns within acoustic events are equally vital to the normal unfolding of language , speech , and musical perception ( e.g. , Bailey , 1983 ; Elliott et al. , 1979 ; Elliott , Hammer , Scholl , &; Wasowicz , 1989 ; Nossa , Rossman , Bond , &; Miller , 1990 ; Studdert-Kennedy , 1975 ; Tallal , Stark , Kallman , &; Mellits , 1981 ; Trehub , 1987 ; Wightman , Allen , Dolan , Kistler , &; Jamieson , 1989 ) . Investigations that focus on the temporal parameter , use convergent methods , and control subject variability should generate significant information regarding auditory development in children . Our initial goal in this project was to investigate the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ a forward-masking paradigm . <p> Aside from the problem of children 's variability within psychophysical tasks ( which is addressed below ) , we were concerned about the development of the auditory system . We hypothesized that a child 's performance in a forward-masking task would be inferior to that of an adult . This is because recent data show that children 's auditory filters are larger than those of adults ( e.g. , Irwin et al. , 1986 ) . If the auditory filters are larger , they would be less efficient and less selective in funneling-out and removing extraneous sounds . The predicted result would be that children would have higher masked thresholds because of the decreased signal-to-noise ratio concomitant with large auditory filters . Signal detectability decreases as a function of increasing filter size ( the filter passes more noise and decreases the S/N ratio ) . When the temporal domain is examined , as in forward masking , one would expect the signal to be less detectable for children with large auditory filters . Further , one would expect that children of different ages would perform differently @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Young children with large filters would be expected to have higher masked thresholds than older children and adults . Further , the functions should vary systematically as the interstimulus interval changes . These conjectures were examined in the present study . <p> The use of children in behavioral psychophysical tasks raises interesting and complex questions . It is well known that psychophysical tasks necessitate focused attention and careful following of verbal instructions . It is equally clear that one often encounters difficulties when young children are requested to be careful psychophysical observers . Some of the more obvious impediments are motivation , attention , restlessness , and just plain boredom . A request to sit quietly in a sound attenuated booth , push buttons , and attend to weird noise bursts and/or tone pips over earphones is not a child 's idea of fun . Under such conditions a child quickly becomes bored , disinterested , and inattentive to monotonous repetitive stimuli . If no effort is made to maintain a recalcitrant child 's curiosity and interest in the task , the data collected during even a short experimental session @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ finish the task ! ) . To overcome this obstacle an experimental technique has been developed , both in our laboratory and others ( e.g. , Abramov et al. , 1984 ; Allen et al. , 1989 ; Hall &; Grose , 1990 ; Jensen , Neff , &; Callaghan , 1987 ; Wightman et al. , 1989 ) , where a psychophysical technique is embedded within a computerized video game . This innovation allows investigators to focus on primary auditory processes while maintaining the child 's cooperation . The introduction of a touch screen system to replace button presses also appears to be a useful innovation . <p> There are several approaches to the investigation of auditory perception via the temporal parameter. 1 The rapid temporal shifts within the flow of fluent speech suggest forward masking as one promising avenue . The detection of a signal that is preceded by a masker is , in part , a function of the interstimulus interval ( ISI ) between the two stimuli ( Elliott , 1962 , 1971 ; Soderquist , Carstens , &; Frank , 1981 ) . Using forward masking @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the ability of a subject to detect a brief signal following a masker . METHODS Subjects <p> There were 25 subjects categorized into five equal sized age groups : 5 through 8 , and adults . Each subject had normal hearing and was examined by the University Speech and Hearing Center . Children were recruited from local day care centers and elementary schools . Adults were selected from faculty and students at the University . Brief Illustrative Procedure <p> On the day of the " game " the child was brought to the Auditory Perception Laboratory . Upon arrival he or she was shown toys and prizes that could be won by playing the game . After a short acclimation period , the child was allowed to enter the " game room " with one of the research assistants . The child sat at a table within the room . The child 's monitor , and a similar one outside the room for the experimenter , were interfaced with a microcomputer and a touch screen system . When the child entered the room , an introductory logo was on the screen @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " danced and " chirped " ( Figure 1a ) . The child and the research assistant put on matching earphones and listened to the gremlin while the instructions for the game were explained . Once the child understood the goal of the game , i.e. , to find the gremlin hiding in one of the rocketships , a practice game would begin . The game would start when the child touched the gremlin displayed on the monitor . When the game began , the visual image changed to that of three rocketships resting on launch pads . The child could hear each rocketship , in sequence , " test its engines " ( a noise burst ) . As each rocketship tested its engines , red flames would emanate from the rocket simultaneously with the noise burst ( Figure 1b ) . On each trial the gremlin would signal its hiding place by providing a chirp ( the signal ) immediately following one of the three noise bursts . Using the chirp as a cue , the child 's task was to touch the rocketship containing the gremlin ( Figure @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ increment in the score shown on the screen and the emergence of the gremlin from the top of the rocket ( Figure 1d ) . The gremlin would chirp and zig-zag upward into the sky until , near the top of the screen , it would be vaporized with a laser beam and disappear with a bang ( the backfire of a Model-T Ford , near 60 dB SPL ) ( Figure 1e ) . If the subject made an error , the gremlin would appear briefly below the correct rocketship , dance , chirp three times and disappear ( Figure 1f ) . The game continued in this manner until the threshold for the signal was estimated by the 3AFC adaptive procedure ( Levitt , 1971 ) . At the completion of each game the rocketship would blast off for a new planet , the point total would appear , and a brief rest period was introduced . Each game lasted approximately 3 to 4 minutes and averaged approximately 30-35 trials . Following the practice game , the experiment would begin and the child would play three games at one @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ between games . With older children , the assistant often left the game room and the child played alone . In situations where the assistant remained in the room , he or she removed the earphones and sat silently behind or to the side of the subject . The subject 's performance was , in all cases , monitored via a one-way mirror . Adults played the same game and had the same practice . Apparatus and Stimuli <p> Each subject was seated in front of a Zenith VGA Multi-Sync monitor inside a double-walled chamber . Auditory stimuli were presented via matched earphones ( TDH-49 in supraural cushions ) . The video game was produced using Borland Turbo Pascal 4.0 and subject responses were recorded via an Elographics Touch Screen and controller . The signal was a digitally generated 500-Hz sinusoid using a sampling frequency of 25 kHz . The signal was converted by a Data Translations 2801-A D/A converter . The rise/fall of the signal ( the gremlin chirp ) was 5 msec . The total duration of the signal was 20 msec . The 500-msec analog noise , including @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ precision noise generator bandpassed ( 10-3kHz at 3 dB down ) through a 24 dB/oct Krohn-Hite 3100 adjustable filter . The noise spectrum level ( No ) was approximately 38 dB ( 73 dB SPL overall ) . The stimuli were mixed , amplified . and controlled using Coulbourn Instruments mixer/amplifiers ( S8224 ) , Coulbourn Instruments programmable attenuators ( S85-08 ) , and a Crown D-75 amplifier . Stimuli were monitored using a Tektronix storage scope ( SAISN amplifier and SL4N spectrum analyzer ) , Ballantine 320A true RMS meter , and Hewlett-Packard manual attenuators ( 350-D ) . Psychophysical procedure <p> A three-alternative forced choice psychophysical procedure ( 3AFC ) using a 2-down/ 1-up Levitt ( 1971 ) adaptive algorithm was embedded into the previously described video game . The algorithm provided a 71% correct detection at the masked threshold . <p> The interval between noise bursts ( inter-rocket interval ) was 500 msec . The interval between the noise offset and the signal onset ( ISI ) was either 10 , 30 , or 100 msec for each game . On each trial the 20-msec signal followed , @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The subject indicated their decision by touching the rocket where the gremlin was thought to be hiding . The signal level varied according to the 2-down/1-up algorithm ( Levitt , 1971 ) . If the subject made two consecutive correct responses , the signal intensity decreased . The signal level increased for each incorrect response . An individual game was terminated after eight turn-arounds . A turn-around occurred whenever the signal intensity changed from increasing to decreasing , or vice-versa . The signal level changed in 4-dB steps for the first three turn-arounds and in 2-dB steps thereafter . The masked threshold for each game was based on the signal intensity at each of the last five turn-arounds . The final datum , for each ISI , was obtained by deriving the mean from the thresholds of three consecutive games . The order of ISI was counterbalanced as much as possible across subjects . The signal intensity for the first game was always at 60-dB SPL . The beginning signal level for the following two games was determined by randomly adding between 10 to 19 dB to the signal threshold obtained @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ 3 , and 4 show , for representative subjects , signal level as a function of trial number . Figure 2 displays the results for a 5-year-old in the left column , and a 6-year-old on the right . Figure 3 shows data for the 7- and 8-year-old groups . Figure 4 shows the performance of two adults . Each column displays three games at each of the three different ISIs . The Mean ( M ) and Standard Error ( SE ) , calculated across games , are indicated within each panel . As is evident from the figures , the performance of the subjects was similar regardless of age . That is , there was a systematic decrease in signal level across trials . Once the masked threshold was approached the subjects tracked the signal to the end of the game ; viz. , the eighth turn-around . Also , as can be seen from the figures , the within subject variability ( SE ) was quite small and differed little as a function of age . This latter result reflects the reliability of the subject 's performance . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . The mean masked threshold is plotted as a function of ISI . The standard error shown below each ISI indicate the presence of individual differences across subjects . The mean threshold , in all but four instances , decreases as a function of increasing ISI . In addition , the standard error for adults , at each ISI , is smaller than the standard error for children . The single exception is the 10-msec ISI for the 6-year-olds . <p> Figure 6 shows the mean-masked thresholds ( top panel ) and the best data ( lower panel ) for each group . In the former case each data point was determined by averaging across all subjects and all games . In the best data condition only a subject 's best game was used in the calculation . The best game was defined as the one that yielded the lowest masked threshold . The figure shows clearly that age affects task performance . The younger the child the higher the masked threshold . Two mixed design ANOVAs revealed significant main effects for age and ISI ( p < .001 ) for @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ A significant Age X ISI interaction ( p < .02 ) occurred for the Mean Data but not the Best Data ( p > .35 ) . The Greenhouse-Geisser correction for df was applied where appropriate . Bonferroni post-hoc tests showed that , in both sets of data , the adult means were significantly lower ( p < .05 ) than those of the children at all ISI values . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS <p> The data support the conclusion that the rocketship video game reduces the within-subject variability often reported when young children are used in psychophysical experiments . One of the most striking features of the technique , aside from the video game itself , was the introduction of the touch screen for the subject 's response . The children specifically enjoyed interacting with the game by touching the rocketship which hid the gremlin . The immediate recording of the correct response and the attempted escape by the gremlin ( and its subsequent demise ) appeared to be important feedback for the child and the success of the technique . The interactive mode provided by the touch screen was most @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Although button pressing had been used as a response mechanism for some of the older children at the outset of the project , the change to the touch screen activity , in conjunction with the inherently interesting gremlin rocketship video game , increased the children 's attention span , interest , and motivation to the level where even the younger children responded like adults ( e.g. , Figures 2 through 4 ) . That is , their data were reliable and systematic as they tracked the signal . In addition , they had relatively small standard errors both within a game as well as between games . The possible exception to this was the 5-year-olds . Not all 5-year-old children could learn to associate the gremlin chirp with the rocketship hiding the gremlin . Approximately 40-50% of the children at this age had difficulty and could not do the task after one practice game . Older children were all successful and played the game with no difficulty . <p> The data on the forward masking ( Figure 6 ) show clear and significant differences among the groups . The noise @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ The younger the child the more effective the noise was in masking the signal . A plausible explanation is suggested by the rather remarkable similarity among the groups . The mean thresholds shifted downward systematically as age increased . This outcome suggests a single underlying factor associated with the differences in performance across groups . This factor , we believe , is the functional width of the auditory filter centered at the signal frequency . If the filter were larger in young children and decreased as a function of age , as suggested by other investigators ( e.g. , Irwin et al. , 1986 ) , then the present results are easily interpreted . The wider filters , at young ages , permit more noise to enter the auditory system and mask the signal . As the child grows older these functional filters decrease in width , are more selective , and simultaneously restrict the amount of noise entering the system . The reduction in noise at these older ages yields a lower masked threshold and parallel functions . <p> Finally , it is worth noting that even though the children @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ age 8 , there are significant differences between a child 's performance and that of an adult . First , it appears that , if the performance is indeed dependent upon the auditory filter width , the auditory filters have not reached their adult level by the age of 8 . Second , the between-subject variability was , in nearly all cases , larger for children . This outcome also suggests that children 's perceptual systems are still developing through 8 years of age . Moreover , the rate of development appears to vary widely ( Figure 5 ) . The data show , for example , that some of the younger children performed the perceptual task as well as children 2 years older . Large individual differences , however , are expected during the course of development . The critical factors for our purposes were the low within subject variance and the steady improvement in performance as a function of age . <p> 
##4001553 Maria Montessori ( 1870-1952 ) , the Italian physician turned educational theorist , espoused a form of education for young children that considered them in their entirety -- spirit , mind , and heart . Today , such education is called " holistic " and stands as a counterpoise to the kind of experience typically offered children in American schools ( J. Miller 1988 ; R. Miller 1990 ) . The holistic worldview is essentially a spiritual , rather than a materialistic , one . It prizes such tuner human qualities as mind , emotion , creativity , imagination , compassion , a sense of wonder , reverence , and the urge for self realization , recognizing these as vital aspects of human existence ( R. Miller 1990 , 58 ) . <p> Montessori 's view of the child is that of a human person creatively unfolding from within . " We know , " she says , " how to find pearls in the shells of oysters , gold in the mountains and coal in the bowels of the earth , but we are unaware of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ he enters this world to renew mankind " ( 1970,240 ) . Montessori sees spiritual powers as a form of wealth that must go into circulation so that others can enjoy them , wealth that must be expressed and utilized ( 1970,140 ) . <p> As a young , enthusiastic educational reformer , Montessori agreed with Frederick Froebel 's view of education , to which she owed much : " By education , then , the divine essence of man should be unfolded , brought out , lifted into consciousness , and man himself reused into free , conscious obedience to the divine principle that lives in him , and to a free representation of this principle in his life " ( 1970,4 ) . Montessori 's agreement with Froebel stemmed from both her Roman Catholic belief in human transcendence and her clinical observations of young children . <p> Montessori 's life-long perception of her work as " scientific pedagogy " and her apparent need to have it considered as exclusively " scientific , " rather than as partially emanating from an intuitive or ideological source , strongly influenced the language @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ up at the end of her life , especially in her books , The Absorbent Mind ( 1967 ) and The Child in The Family ( 1970 ) ( both posthumously published ) , she clearly indicated her method 's alt encompassing inspiration . <p> As an old , wise , and revered sage , interned in India during World War II , Montessori revisited her earliest educational views and restated them in language congenial to her audience . Together with Krishnamurti , Montessori believed that the right kind of education cultivates one 's whole being and with Gandhi , that " unless the development of the mind and body goes hand in hand with a corresponding awakening of the soul , the former alone would prove to be a poor lopsided affair " ( 1970,138 ) . <p> For Montessori , education is a " help to life . " It transcends the narrow limits of direct instruction and direct transmission of knowledge from one mind to another . Montessori 's focus was on the " preparation of the environment , " the key to her idea of education from @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ exert through children has the environment as its instrument , for the child absorbs his environment , takes everything from it , and incarnates it in himself " ( 1970,66 ) . Montessori deplored the universally limited perception of education as an education merely of the mind . " If education is always to be conceived along the same antiquated Line of a mere transmission , there is little hope from it in the bettering of man 's future . If help and salvation are to come , they can only come from the children , for the children are the makers of men " ( 1970,4 ) . <p> Montessori sees education as a help to the unfolding of the child 's inborn psychic powers . She , through her method , proposes to unleash the constructive energy of the child , which she maintains has returned unnoticed for thousands of years . Using as an example the facility with which every child acquires his or her language of origin , Montessori finds within every child a painstaking teacher . " The only language men ever speak perfectly is the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ teach them anything " ( 1970,6 ) . Montessori sees the teacher 's task as " not to talk " but to prepare and arrange a series of motives for cultural activity within an environment especially designed for the young child . The child 's education is not acquired by listening to the teacher 's words but by virtue of experiences in which the child acts on his environment . Forty years of experience with young children in many countries persuaded Montessori that the child 's individual activity was the one factor that stimulated and produced development ( 1970,8 ) . " We teachers can only help the work going on , as servants wait upon a master . We then become witnesses to the development of the human soul " ( 1970,9 ) . <p> Montessori sees the traditional credit given parents , especially mothers , for the formation of the child as a major obstacle to understanding the child 's inner powers . " We used to say that it was the mother who formed the child ; for it is she who teaches him to walk , talk @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ done by the mother . It is an achievement of the child . What the mother brings forth is the baby , but it is the baby who produces the man " ( 1970,16 ) . Montessori reserves a particularly harsh judgment for authoritarian parents bent on replicating themselves in their children . She saw the reactions of the young children in her schools , where youngsters ' repressed spirits expanded and revealed themselves , as an indication of the serious child-rearing errors committed in the past . She described the children in her schools as tranquil , absorbed , and intensely interested in their work , achieving an amazing level of serenity . " Evidently , our students ' natural spontaneity , which derives mysteriously from the child 's inner life , had long been suppressed by the energetic and inopportune intervention of adults , who believe they can do everything better than children , substituting their own activities for those of the children and forcing them to submit their will and initiative to adult control " ( 1970,10-11 ) . <p> Children who live in a world created by @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ needs . Montessori sees virtually all child rearing and education pervaded by the notion of adaptation of the child to the adult world , adaptation based upon an unquestioning obedience , " which leads to the negation of the child 's personality " ( 1970,12 ) . Her solution to the problem is to create for young children an adaptive environment different from the ones in which children typically operate and that have already formed their characters . " The implementation of any educational system ought to begin with the creation of an environment that protects the child from the difficult and dangerous obstacles that threaten him in the adult world . The shelter in the storm , the oasis in the desert , the place of spiritual rest ought to be created in the world precisely to assure the healthy development of the child " ( 1970,13 ) . <p> Montessori argues for the child as a separate being , rather than as an extension of parents or as an appendage of family . " The child as a separate entity , with different needs to satisfy in order to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ into consideration " ( 1970,15 ) . Montessori exhorts parents , politicians , and educators to join forces in their respect and help for the " construction work the human soul is called upon to do , a work of formation which brings out the immense potentialities with which children , the sons of men , are endowed " ( 1970,17 ) . <p> Montessori 's explanation of the child 's immediate postnatal development is as a " spiritual embryo . " Just as the prenatal period has done its formative work in the physical sphere , so the formative work of the postnatal period is to make the baby into a kind of " spiritual embryo . " Unlike infra-human species , only man has this double embryonic life characterized by his prolonged infancy . " If the work of man on the earth is related to his spirit , to his creative intelligence , then his spirit and his intelligence must be the fulcrum of his existence , and of all the workings of his body . About this fulcrum his behavior is organized , and even his physical @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ spiritual halo " ( 1970,61 ) . <p> If it is , as she believes , the nature of man be ruled by an enfolding spiritual halo , then , Montessori maintains , the care given the newborn must be care transcending bodily needs . The ability of newborns to absorb everything around them directly dictates the design of a particular environment for them . " The child has a different relation to his environment from ours . Adults admire their environment ; they can remember it and think about it ; but the child absorbs it . The things he sees are not just remembered ; they form pan of his soul , He incarnates in himself all in the world about him that his eyes see and his ears hear . In us the same things produce no change , but the child is transformed by them " ( 1970,62 ) . <p> Montessori underscores the immense influence that education , in the guise of a " prepared " environment , can exert on newborns. gifted as they are , with a capacity for incarnation . This environment has @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ . Children are born with a vital force already present in general structure of the absorbent mind . This structure changes throughout their early life in response to growth and psychic development , as well as to their interactions with the environment . <p> Montessori envisions as the steward of the child 's emergent spirit a parent or teacher with faith that children , if allowed , will epiphanize their true selves . " Our schools , " she says , " offer the tinies ( two and three year olds ) a sheltering refuge in which the first elements of character can take shape " ( 1970,222 ) . The teacher is the keeper and custodian of the environment and an exemplar of non-intrusive behavior . " Although the relationship between the child and teacher is in the spiritual field , the teacher can find a very good model for her behavior in the way a good valet looks after his master . ... He serves his meals , but does not oblige his master to eat . ... So we must behave when the child 's spirit is being @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ child 's spirit " ( 1970,281 ) . <p> Helping children act , will , and think for themselves is at the heart of Montessori 's " method . " In an environment responsive to their true needs , children acquire physical independence by being self-sufficient . They become of independent will by using the power of choice . They become capable of independent thought by working alone without interruption . In all of this , the adult 's contribution to children is to serve their spirits . <p> 
##4001557 In the beginning there was Spider Woman , she who was called Thought Woman . At the dawn of being , Spider Woman spun a line from North to South , and another from East to West . She sat by these threads that stretched to the four horizons , which she had drawn across the universe , and she sang . As she sang two daughters came forth : Ut Set , who became the mother of the Pueblo people , and Nau Ut Set , who became the mother of all others . On all her daughters ' children Spider Woman placed a covering of creative wisdom , spun from her own spider being . To each she attached a thread of her web . It is for this reason that each person has a delicate thread connected to Spider Woman , connected through a doorway in the top of the skull . We chant to keep the doorway open . <p> Many forget the door . They grow cruel and corrupt . Only those who remember to keep the door open , to draw open @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ travel . They can see and feel the thread that is their part of the web of destiny that Spider Woman weaves . -- Keres Pueblo creation myth adapted from Ancient Mirrors of Womanhood by Merlin Stone <p> <p> Narratives concerning the origin , nature , and functioning of the world provide a container within which the individual develops a particular relationship to experience . That container helps to delineate the boundaries of consciousness for both the individual and the group . As Paula Gunn Allen says in her recent book Grandmothers of the Light ( 1991,229 ) , " Thought Woman spins her web of dreams , thinks us into being , dances us into existence . As she thinks , so we are . " This article examines the thesis that , as the gods or goddesses of creation think , so the individual is . Cosmology , that aspect of a culture 's mythology that defines the origin and nature of the universe , reflects psychology ; the culture 's image of the cosmos is mirrored in the structure of the individual psyche . My use of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ layers of the self , particularly the relationship between ego and the unconscious . <p> This is not to imply a direct cause and effect relationship between the structure of the psyche and cosmological narrative . That in itself would be an attempt to force a complex nonlinear reality into a linear form . Cultural and clinical observations imply that cosmology and psyche do not interact in a specifically predictable , diagrammable way . The relationship between psyche and cosmology seems to be that of an interactional field , a series of reflections connected in a web of facets , many of which can not be addressed in this discussion and some of which are unknown to us . This field filters perception and guides the assignment of value and meaning , shaping the experience of reality . Accessing a nonlinear reality is difficult with linear , cognitive tools . The rationally oriented ego must adjust to tracking visible aspects of this web in order to gain clues concerning its nature . This process is somewhat like following the trails of atomic particles in a cloud chamber . The object of @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ deduce certain of its characteristics from its visible effects . <p> One visible effect of the multilayered field is cosmological narrative . These narratives are constructs of reality that include metastories concerning the creation of the world and the way the world functions ; tales of the nature of a particular human group and its place and function in that world ; and individual life stories of origin , purpose , and relationship to the whole . The scope of normal awareness and the limits of perception can to a certain extent to be charted or envisioned by building a picture of individual or group cosmology . An exploration of the cosmological stories of Western science illustrates this relationship and reveals psychological implications concerning the experience of mystery and rationality . In contrast , the cosmology of the Spider Woman stories presents a different perception of reality . <p> Spider Woman , as a Goddess of creation , evokes a universe in which tangible and intangible realities overlap ; human beings exist in both layers . The cosmology of the Keres Pueblo provides a container within which the individual can maintain @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ of destiny . Enactment of a ritual round of ceremony connects the community and its members to the mythic universe of mystery , the ground of being . A cycle of stories describes the mythic world as an integral part of the " real " world and conveys , through narrative , relationships among the cohabitants of a multilayered universe ( Gunn Allen 1991 ) . Attention and participation will bring the individual to awareness of his or her connection to the cosmos , a weblike interconnection that permanently exists , although it might be " forgotten . " Mystery is a natural , even nourishing aspect of existence , conveyed through story and image as both immanent and transcendent , ineffable but deeply felt , the source of meaning and inspiration . This creation story portrays a metaphysical ground of being much like the Hindu picture of Brahman , " the life force of the universe which secretly dwells in all things , " as the Upanishadsjung describes it . How do these images compare to those of Western cosmology ? <p> Some mythic traditions of the Western world offer @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ gateways to mystery , but the common practice of secular life in Western culture excludes a personal connection to the ground of being . The dominant worldview attempts to define the universe , its inhabitants , and their relationships through a scientistic methodology that explicitly excludes the existence of mystery . This cosmological structure constitutes a secular myth which states that the cosmos is entirely subject to rational explanation , if only one has sufficient data . <p> Thus the prevailing cosmology of America has gone beyond the worldview of the patriarchal monotheisms . The Genesis God of creation forms a world in which the individual is born out of connection to the ground of being but , through the careful following of rules , may gain a hierarchical relationship to the source of creation ( Campbell 1968 ) . Received secular wisdom depicts instead a cosmos to which one can relate only through the medium of rational understanding . The God of creation in this cosmology is rational cause and effect , and the ground of being has all but disappeared from conscious perception . <p> Within this worldview the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ we have explained and that which we are in the process of researching . As a pragmatically enlightened people , we travel down the linear road of time , acquiring knowledge of and therefore mastery of a fundamentally mechanistic cosmos in which human cognition is the essence of awareness . Insights that question the primacy of linear understanding , such as chaos theory or the delineation of the unconscious , are regularly reworked so that they appear to support the quest for a fully rational explanation of the universe . All those aspects of the universe and the human being that are not particularly amenable to rational analysis assume nonreality . And thus the cosmos is split . One can not experience any valid relationship to the mysterious ground of being , because mystery itself is merely a misperception springing from inadequate research . We " limit the definition of reality to the body of theoretical and empirical knowledge at our disposal and declare as meaningless all questions about the actual nature of systems " ( Keller 1985 , 147 ) . Experiences and inquiries that resist the process of linear @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the individual . <p> How are nonrational experiences relegated to shadow ? Most commonly , society or culture , particularly patriarchal culture , is spoken of as a sort of force that somehow controls the individual 's perceptions and creates shadow . The image is of culture as an external power whose influence can perhaps be eliminated by the individual through insight and the adoption of new rules for thinking and living ( as with political correctness ) . Such efforts are frequently ineffective . People raised within the Western worldview mirror the cosmological split of the culture in the structure of their psyches . They must work with the " real but unknown " ( Jung 1966 ) aspects of self in order to effect a change in how reality is experienced . Intellectual decisions are inadequate for this level of change . <p> How is the split cosmos of Western culture reflected in the individual psyche ? Conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche are strictly separated . The standard ego in this configuration is the ultimate rationalistic arbiter of reality itself , the personality 's scientist attempting to @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ world . Internal and external experiences that can not be molded to the ego 's grasp can only reside in the unconscious . Ego strength is directly opposed to that archetypal , nonlinear world of mystery that is without boundaries . Thus , it lives in the unconscious . Flexibility in the separation of ego and unconscious is synonymous with inaccurate perception , if not delusion . <p> In the typical individual only severe trauma or neurological imbalance will prevent the structure of the psyche from being formed by the time adulthood is reached . From that point , perception is determined by the boundaries of the ego and the relationship between ego and unconscious . Jung ( 1966 ) thought that the ego forms a lens or filter that bends external and internal stimuli into shapes it can handle . The ego complex of the healthy Western , post-Enlightenment individual is cognitively imperialistic in its effort to master all phenomena . This style of ego is the perfect partner to a cosmology that imagines a universe in which the conquest of phenomena through rational understanding is the ultimate good . @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ object . Where can ineffable mystery reside in the domain of such an ego ? It exists in the unconscious aspect of the psyche , where its spiritual reality is enmeshed with all other unexplainable phenomena , including pathogenic material . <p> It was Jung 's opinion that the ego-dominated , rationalistic stance of the Western psyche gives rise to loss of meaning in the experience of life ( Jung 1966 ) . In this way , the disappearance of meaning from inner life reflects the disappearance of the ground of being from cosmology . His attempt to mediate this psychic structure was to emphasize the deep archetypal meaning in mythic images that emerge from the unconscious . The individual 's journey into the archetypal level of the unconscious aspect of the psyche provides a connection to the ground of being and thus a felt sense of meaning . Analytic psychologists tend to use this framework to interpret the myths of tribal cultures as though the images in those stories are manifestations of the unconscious life of the tribe ( e.g. , Sandner 's Navajo Symbols of Healing , 1979 ) @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ego complex , this is an accurate interpretation . If they do not have that structure , it is a misrepresentation . <p> Several years ago I was visiting a friend who was pediatrician for the Indian Health Service on a Navajo reservation . We were driving through an arroyo in her truck one day , when she told me about beliefs concerning the coyote that she had encountered among her patients and their parents . She then asked me what I made of these beliefs . Clearly she was asking me for a psychological interpretation . I looked out the window to consider my answer , and there was a coyote running along the top of the arroyo , keeping pace with the truck . Before I could say anything , the coyote dashed across the path of the truck . Smoke immediately began to pour from the dashboard , and the truck shuddered to a halt . I offered no psychological interpretations to my friend concerning the unconscious meaning of coyote stories . <p> When Gunn Allen writes of the " living reality of the Medicine world " ( @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ directly challenges the usual and traditional psychological interpretations of mythological symbols . Her statement that myths are " factual accounts " that " connect with deep levels of being , not because the figures they tell about are . . . denizens of . . . the unconscious but because the supernaturals live within the same environs that humans occupy " asks us to shake loose from the Western ego complex and enter into the cosmological container of Spider Woman . <p> Her statements , which are echoed by Leslie Marmon Silko and others , seem to indicate an ego complex that is not imperial in its rational conquest of the phenomenal world but which is willing to be acted on and to interact with aspects of the cosmos that can not be explained or mastered . I speculate that the psyche formed within such a cosmological container might have an entirely different relationship to nonlinear aspects of the universe . The relationship between ego and unconscious might not be an adversarial split but rather a floating and permeable one . Cosmos and psyche in such a container might reflect a @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ subjectobject split . <p> A year after the incident in the arroyo , I again visited my friend . She continued to recount the stories told to her by her patients , but she told them with a fascination and absorption that clearly did not ask for interpretations . When I mentioned the shift in her attitude , she told me her own story . One night a very small baby who was expected to die had inexplicably rallied and lived . This was not an unknown experience for her as a doctor , and , within the culture of medicine there are accepted ways of looking at such events . For some reason , that night she realized that the accepted stance was a sort of nonexplanation , a way of putting aside a mysterious event . She began to consider her experience with the baby as a real question . Six months later that particular question was still unanswered , but , in trying to answer it , my friend had entered into a chain of questions concerning her beliefs about the nature of reality , causality , and @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ her cosmological beliefs were completely changed but several gateways had opened in its framework and a relationship with the mysterious had begun with that first question based in genuine curiosity . Such questions honestly addressed are the key to change . <p> There is a story in which the twins Monster Slayer and Born for Water meet Spider Woman on the path of the gods . She says , " Before I help you must tell me as fully as you can who you are and where you come from . You must tell me what you have done and what you hope to do " ( Zolbrod 1989 , 196 ) . The twins do not find it easy to answer her , but , when they do , they enter a new level of experience . If an individual or group is willing to articulate a detailed picture of the universe and their place in it , and especially to bring the underlying unconscious assumptions of that picture to light , room is created for previously unknown influences . As Keller describes her analysis of the construction of the @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ " that we make for nature and nature 's observable phenomena . There is space as well between the ideology of inquiry and its practice ( Keller 1985 ) . Into these spaces , the process of change enters . <p> This process can take place concerning a specific aspect of worldview , or it can encompass the nature of reality . It is a process that can be triggered by a crisis , a piece of luck , an accident , an epiphany , an insight . It is not a question of choosing a story or script that is therapeutically or politically correct . Becoming conscious of and articulating the cosmological narrative that one is already living and finding its opportunities for expansion is the essence of the process . Such a narrative , when honestly mapped , contains many levels of the self . The ego is included but not exclusive . In addressing the myth and the story , we can go beyond a cognitive consideration or analysis of beliefs and beyond a catharsis of emotional reality . Exploration through narrative and image affects the internal relationships @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ the psyche processes experience , the interaction of the ego and the unconscious . <p> As the mythic narrative unfolds , a container is needed for the multiple and sometimes contradictory layers -- symbolic , somatic , emotional , cognitive , and communal -- which emerge . Myth is " explanatory of how we began and also a prescriptive account of how subsequent beginnings ( which renew the cosmos ) should proceed ; the Last Supper , for example , tells us not only how the Christian era began but how its energies can be periodically renewed " ( Young 1991 , 28 ) . A ritual act recaptures the nature of the world with its multiple layers and connects individual consciousness back to those layers least evident in the work-a-day world . The split cosmos and the split psyche are woven back into the web . Ritual practice provides a container which also feeds back into the exploration of narrative . Many activities beyond those which are typically referred to as ritual serve the same function -- art , ceremony , psychotherapy ( the ritualistic aspects of which are described @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ more . What ever the form of the ritual , it must be rooted in the cosmological narrative in order to renew the cosmos in an evolving form ; in turn , the ritual must inform the myth . " Myth is noun , ritual is verb " ( Gunn Allen 1991 , 8 ) . NOTE <p> This paper is an aspect of ongoing work that is supported in part by a grant from the Center for the Story of the Universe . <p> 